Dichotic Listening Task Analysis

Dichotic Listening Task Analysis Miss Emma Elizabeth Dorothy Meredith What does the dichotic listening task tell us about how we attend to information? Discuss this with reference to early and late selection models of attention. Attention is a selection process and is invaluable to our everyday lives. We use our attention for many things such as crossing the road, watching over our children, or even while multi-tasking (which is an invaluable skill in today’s world). Psychologist William James (890), talked about two modes of attention; Active attention which is indicative of an individual’s goals and expectations and controlled in a top-down way; and passive attention which is controlled in a bottom-up way and is effected by external stimuli (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). The way attention works brings about a host of questions which has generated much research in to this field; questions such as how much information can we take in at once? What happens to the information to which we are not attending? Do distractions from unwanted information cause attention to fail? Other questions are how do we process the information coming through our senses? And when in the process do we filter out that which i s not relevant? (Naish, 2010). This essay will be concerned with where the filter lies in the process and will compare and contrast early and late models of selection, drawing on research in this area which has used dichotic listening tasks to help explain how we attend to information. The dichotic listening task is a method commonly used by researchers in psychology to explore selective attention. Participants are asked to wear headphones, in which they are then presented with multiple sounds representing that of the real world. These different sounds are played in each ear and are easily manipulated (Naish, 2010). Broadbent (1952, 1954) used the dichotic listening task to support the bottleneck theory of attention. This theory proposed that information is selected on the basis of ‘low level’ physical characteristics such as location of sound, pitch and gender of speaker, and only this information is processed which would suggests that this bottleneck in the attentional system is such that only a limited amount of sensory information passes through it. Broadbent argued that this bottleneck occurs early on in the filtering process. To demonstrate this theory, Broadbent used the dichotic listening task in which he used two conditions where the participa nts are asked to listen and repeat different numbers. Pairs of different numbers are played to each ear. They then have to report these numbers back either by confirming the numbers heard in each ear (condition 1) or reporting the numbers in the order they were heard (condition 2). Broadbent’s findings were that generally participants found condition 1 easier than condition 2 and that participants generally couldn’t remember the ignored message in one ear when close attention was paid to the message in the other. However he found that with short messages, participants could access the neglected information a short time after, as it would be stored in the echoic memory. Physical features such as pitch and location were also found to be used by participants to track messages. From this, Broadbent concluded that switching attention back and forth between ears took up more cognitive resource and that the physical features were also used to filter information. He also propo sed that all information is received in parallel and then sorted based on the perceptual characteristics. It is only then that the signal wanted is passed on for processing, anything else is blocked which protects again overloading of the semantic processor (Naish, 2010). Broadbent’s early filter theory has been criticised he argument being that if we haven’t extracted meaning out of the sensory information then how do we know to discard it as not relevant. Theories which contrast Broadbent’s early filter theory shall be looked at next. Attenuation theorists suggest that only the shadowed message in dichotic listening tasks are fully processed, however everything else is not blocked, it is just attenuated. Treisman (1960) discovered that some participants, when shadowing a message, would say a word that had been presented in the unshadowed message. She found that this was usually because the word was plausible in the context of meaning in the shadowed message (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). This led Treisman (1964) to propose the attenuation theory which is that all information is perceptually processed in parallel then sent through for processing semantically. The attended message would be left untouched and then, in contrast to Broadbent, all of the other information would be attenuated and analysed, rather than blocked which explains why the attenuated message will sometimes be attended to (such as in the cocktail party effect where you can be attended to a conversation in one part of the room, hear your name in another part of the room and then switch your attention to that conversation) and also illustrates a flaw within Broadbent’s early Filter theory. Treisman used the dichotic listening task and shadowing to illustrate attenuation. Participants were asked to shadow a story being played in one ear ignoring what was being played in the other ear. She found that participants began to shadow the other ear if the story switched ears, contradicting Broadbent’s theory as they shouldn’t be aware of the story continuing in the other ear. Treisman proposed that this was due to priming where the temporary sensitisation of a word due to the presence of another causes the listener to assume what the next word will be. She also claimed that the location of the bottleneck was likely to be more flexible than Broadbent had suggested (Naish, 2010). Certain words, such as own name, may also be recognised easily in the unattended message. It was demonstrated by Underwood (1977) that the primi ng effect became stronger if there were several linked ideas used to prime rather than a single word. Underwood also concluded that sentences are processed as whole units but only when attended as the priming effect was also much stronger when the story starts in the attended ear and then switches to the unattended ear rather than vice versa (Driver, 2001). It has already been mentioned that Broadbent had found that information could be stored in the echoic memory and it is also true of the iconic memory when it come visual modality. He argued that if we could switch attention rapidly into the appropriate sensory buffer then it would be possible to process unattended information. Broadbent was, however, cynical about this as he believed that it took 500ms to shift attention, but it actually takes 50ms (Tsal, 1983 cited Eysenck, Keane, 2010). This means that shifting attention to that information in the echoic memory can be as efficient as shifting attention to the actual object. Tre isman argues that the reason for this sporadic semantic processing of the unattended information is due to a leaky filter. In contrast, Broadbent argues that it depends on what is called ‘slippage’ by Lachter et.al (2004). That is attention shifted to supposedly unattended information, therefore it is not unattended (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). There are three other studies that showed unconscious awareness of the unattended material. Corteen and Wood (1972) conducted an experiment where participants were conditioned with a mild shock to city names until they showed a Galvanic Skin Response (GSR). They still showed GSR to these words and cities they hadn’t been conditioned in, when they occurred in the non-shadowed message, although consciously they were not aware of them (Naish, 2010). Corteen and Dunn (1974) also conditioned their participants to certain words so that they would exhibit GSR upon hearing them. To demonstrate non-awareness, participants were instructed to make a conscious response when a conditioned word was played. They failed to do this most of the time when the conditioned word was played in the unattended ear and exhibited GSR. This suggests that some processing for meaning must take place and contradicts Broadbent’s early filter theory (Driver, 2001). Von Wright, Anderson and Stenman (197 5) suggested that meaning can be processed without awareness. They established that a GSR was caused by related words, even synonyms, for the conditioned word by conducting a dichotic listening task where the participants were presented with two lists of words auditorially and asked to shadow one list and ignore the other. The findings were that this indeed happened and a GSR effect occurred when the words were in the non-shadowed list or were very similar sounding words (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). As already mentioned, attenuation theory helps to explain the cocktail party effect and also Corteen and Dunn’s finding. It confirms that unattended information might be available for identification not meaning. There is also less perceptual information to be identified with special words such as own name. Attenuation theory also explains why participants will follow a message from one ear to the other as both messages are being processed however priming makes related words in attenuated messages easier to identify at switching point (Driver, 2001). It may also be possible to explain auditory attention (how we deduce distinct â€Å"sound objects† to attend to, such as one person’s voice among many) by extending visual attention theories that explain how we deduce and attend to objects in our spotlight of attention. This suggests the same neural mechanisms may lie beneath both types of perception (Shinn-Cunningham, 2008). It is proposed by late selection theorists that all information is processed. It’s only the pertinent material that is made available Deutsch and Deutsch (1963) suggested that all messages are processed both perceptually and semantically, with the most important or relevant stimulus deciding the response. This puts the bottleneck much closer to the end of the processing system than both Broadbent’s and Treisman’s theories (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). Another theory suggested by Norman (1968) was that all information must be processed to the point where meaning is designated from memory (Naish, 2010). However, late selection theories were later falsified by developments in neuroscience. Neurophysiological studies took place which provided evidence against the theories of Deutsch and Deutsch. Coch, Sanders and Neville (2005), using the dichotic listening task, asked their participants to attend to one of two auditory messages. The task for the participants was to spot p robe targets which were presented on both the attended and non-attended messages. Event-Related Potentials (ERP) were recorded from each participant. It was found that ERPs appeared 100ms after the probe was presented and was greater when the probe was presented on the attended message. This suggests that there was more assessing of attended probes rather than unattended probes. However, if processing happened in the way Deutsch and Deutsch theorise, then there wouldn’t be any difference in the ERPs recorded (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). Each of the theories uses the dichotic listening task to provide evidence to support their theory. We know that attention is a limited resource and that we can’t focus on everything within our environment. The three major theories do give us an insight in to this. Broadbent’s early selection theory argues that the filter comes before the information is given meaning, but if this was the case then we wouldn’t be able to identify our own name when spoken in the unattended ear. Deutsch and Deutsch went on to argue that the filter happens after the information has been given meaning , so you register and assign everything a meaning then the filter decides what to pass on to conscious awareness. However, as attention is limited, this seems like a waste of resource to assign meaning to information that you will never need. So, Treismans attenuation theory fits nicely in between Broadbent’s early filter and Deutsch and Deutsch late selection filter and argues tha t the information into the unattended ear weakens but is not eliminated, that some of it will get through to the perceptual processes and be given meaning. The input from the unattended ear will still be given meaning but not as high priority as that in the attended ear. If, at this point, the unattended information is important (like hearing your names across a crowded room) then attention can be switched and you attenuate the previously attended to ear. The jury is still out on which of these theories is the ultimate when it comes to helping in our understanding of selective attention, however, each if the theories has been pivotal in how we view selective attention and this is important because attention is crucial to any other cognitive function that we perform. Word count: 2046 References Driver, J. (2001). ‘A selective review of selective attention research from the past century’,British Journal of Psychology,vol. 92, pp. 53–78. Edgar, G. (2007). ‘Perception and attention’. In D. Miell, A. Phoenix, K. Thomas (Eds), Mapping Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 3-50). Milton Keynes: The Open University. Eysenck, M. Keane, M. (2010). ‘Visual perception and attention’. In Cognitive psychology: a students handbook. (6th ed. Pp 153 – 201) Hove, Eng. New York: Psychology Press. Naish. P., (2010). ‘Attention’. In Kaye, H. (Eds).Cognitive psychology (pp 29 – 62). Milton Keynes: The Open University Shinn-Cunningham, B.G. (2008). ‘Object-based auditory and visual attention’,Trends in Cognitive Sciences,vol. 12, pp. 182–6.

Paper as a Metaphor in A Streetcar Named Desire -- Tennessee Williams,

"[M]ortgages, foreclosures, directions, letters, poems, telegrams, newspapers, appraisals, songs, even moons (Kolin 1)." What do these all have to do with each other? Paper and A Streetcar Named Desire. Philip C. Kolin points out this metaphor in his article " 'It's only a paper moon': The Paper Ontology' in Tennessee Williams' A Streetcar Named Desire.'" Kolin has found that Williams has used paper as a metaphor to describe Blanche's and Stanley's faults and desires. Kolin finds this to be a common thread in Williams' work but mainly focuses on Streetcar. Williams himself finds paper to be an interesting creation: "In Williams' own words, paper, when properly inscribed, can be sacred, yet when it is subjected to corrupt or untruthful imprints it is profane" (2). It's true paper seems to play a very important role in this play. One of the first things Stanley does is throw a "red-stained swatch of butcher paper" (3), at Stella. After reading or viewing this play, a bloodstained paper and Stanley definitely seem to intertwine with each other. Kolin argues Stanley uses paper ...

The Sociological Perspective

Know the assumptions of structural-functional, conflict, and symbolic interaction theories. Review the contributions of Augusta Comet, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, 6. Mile Drummers, Max Weber, Harriet Martinets, Jane Addams, and W. E. B. Dubos. Review the development of sociology in the United States. 8. Review the process of the three types of research discussed in the textbook. 9. Outline the steps in the scientific method of research. 10. Differentiate between the following concepts: variable, independent and dependent variables, and control variables. 11. 12. 13.Explain the importance of operational De Discuss what a sample is in survey research. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of controlled experiments, survey research, and participant observation. Do you every wonder why people in the Midwest drive pick-ups and the people in China want a bicycle? Do you ever think about why people were glued to their televisions when the World Trade Center Towers were destroyed by terro rists? Do you ever watch people at a ballgame or at a shopping mall? Have you ever wondered why these people behave as they do? Do you ask yourself why you make some of the decisions that you do?If you see influences from family, friends, co-workers, and the kind of economy hat we live in, then you are practicing sociology. Sociology is concerned with the groups, large and small, that we are a part of and how they influence our behavior. Sociology is one part of the social sciences. The social sciences are a related group of disciplines that study some aspect of human behavior. The differences are in the focuses. As examples, psychology focuses on such areas as the personality, the brain, and how we learn. History and political science study past events, government structures, and current affairs to understand our behavior.Economics includes areas such as supply and emend, government policies, and occupational trends. Anthropology focuses on cultures and how they determine certain b ehaviors. Sociology can be explained by the updated version of an old story titled: The Elephant Story. It goes as follows: It is said that in the recent past five wise men and women, all blindfolded, were led to an elephant. Each was asked to explain what they â€Å"saw†. The first, a psychologist, feeling the top of the head, said, â€Å"This is the only thing that counts. All feeling and thinking takes place inside here.To understand this beast, we need study only this. The second, an anthropologist, tenderly touching the trunk and the tusks, said, â€Å"This is really primitive. I feel very comfortable here. Concentrate on these. † The third, a political scientist, feeling the gigantic ears, said, â€Å"This is the power center. What goes in here controls the entire beast. Concentrate your studies here. † The fourth, an economist, feeling the mouth, said, this is what counts. What goes in here is distributed throughout the body. Concentrate your studies on this. Then came the sociologist (OF course! , who, feeling the entire body, said, You can't understand the beast by concentrating only one part. Each is but part of the whole. The head, the trunk and tusks, the ears, the mouth – all are important. And so are the parts of the beast that you haven't even mentioned. We must remove our blindfolds so we can see the larger picture. We have to see the larger picture. We have to see how everything works together to form the entire animal. Pausing for emphasis, the sociologist added, â€Å"And we also need to understand how this creature interacts with similar creatures, HOW does their life in groups influence their behaviors? I wish I could conclude this fable by saying that the psychologist, the anthropologist, the political scientist, and the economist, dazzled upon hearing the wisdom of the sociologist, amidst gasps of wonderment threw away their blindfolds, and joining together, began to examine the larger picture. But, alas, an d alack! Upon hearing this sage advice, each stubbornly bound their blindfolds even tighter to concentrate all the more on the single part. And if you listened very, very carefully you could even hear them saying, â€Å"Don't touch the tusks. † ‘take your hand off the ears. â€Å"Stay away room the mouth – that's my area. † Sociology, however, includes all of these areas of study and is probably the broadest of all of the social sciences. The main difference is that sociology focuses on the effects of groups on our actions and decisions. Sociology views behavior as resulting from all of the various influences that these disciplines specifically study. Certainly living in an industrial/technological society affects our motivations and our occupational choices. World War II affected how we view women in the labor force today. Telecommunications have influenced our current work patterns.These are a few examples that demonstrate the effects of our society on b ehavior. Sociology is defined as the systematic study of human social interaction. This means how we interact with persons in any group setting. Most of us follow patterns in our behaviors (think about your morning routines, are they usually the same? ) and this allows sociologists to learn something about our behavior. Sociologists try to describe and to explain behavior. They are people watchers – looking for patterns of behavior which allows sociologists to predict trends in behavior to help determine better social policies.However, sociologists realize that people change which requires that our predictions be tenuous. Never the less, sociologists want to develop a body Of reliable knowledge that can be applied to make our lives more understandable. Sociologists explain behavior through the concepts of structure and roles. Structure is much like a framework or script that guides our behavior. Roles, on the other hand, fit into a structure and deal with how we should perfor m. In a basketball game, rules serve to give the game structure. Everyone who plays knows or should know the rules of the game. This allows everyone to now how to behave and what to expect.

Domestic Terrorism in America Essay - 2166 Words

We therefore advocate a revolution against the industrial system. -Ted Kaczynski The sun rises to a deep spring-blue sky on Sunday the Fifth of May 2017; 51,000 people are converging on downtown Spokane for the 39th running of the Bloomsday road race. Thirty miles to the south, near the town of Fairfield, a small cluster of people watch from a distance as two men in protective coveralls and respirators pour fifty gallons of a clear fluid into the payload compartment of a Bell 300C helicopter. The crop duster, which was purchased for cash in Walla Walla, is a descendent of the Korean War era helicopters depicted on the television series MASH. After the liquid is loaded, and the outside of the helicopter is sanitized, the pilot runs†¦show more content†¦Her diagnosis: ricin poisoning. Once confirmed by lab testing, the report is transmitted to all regional health care centers, but nothing will help the afflicted. Ricin poisoning has no antidote, and no course of treatment has ever been found to be successful. By Monday at noon 10,000 people are dead. Three days later, the toll stands at 25,000. The attack is the single largest terrorist act in history. While the preceding scenario is definitely scary, what makes it truly terrifying is the ease with which such an act can be committed. Ricin, a derivative of the castor bean, is easily produced by anyone with a minimal background in laboratory methodology, such as might be learned in high school chemistry (Fester). And if ricin doesnt work, there are innumerable other deadly concoctions available for use by any group or individual looking to make a statement. Once the stuff of movies or perhaps newscasts covering a conflict in some third world backwater country, large scale terrorist operations are now a deadly reality in America. Few will ever forget the images of the Afred P. Murrah Federal Building: its remaining floors held up in a precarious cantilever; bloody, dust-covered survivors struggling to escape through the smoke and flames. These images will be repeated over and over again as our nation moves into theShow MoreRelatedDomestic Terrorism Is America s Greatest Threat : Mass Shootings And Hate Crimes1389 Words   |  6 PagesDomestic Terrorism is America s Greatest Threat: Mass Shootings and Hate Crimes I. Introduction The United States has been in a national state of emergency fighting a war on terrorism since September 11, 2001. The intelligence communities have pursued and tracked down terrorist suspects who pose a direct threat to this country, yet one of the greatest threat to this country is the astronomical number of mass shootings and hate crimes that have occurred in this country post 9/11. 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